People, Power and Politics in the Post War Period
Australia’s Role in the United Nations
- The UN was established at the end of World War II to prevent war and ensure the well-being and freedom of all peoples.
- It is made up of representatives from all around the world, with 190 members in 2003.
- Funding of the UN depends on the goodwill of member states.
- Its actions are based on the principles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
- Australia was closely involved in the UN from the very start.
- Dr H.V. Evatt, Attorney-General and Minister for External Affairs in the Chifley Government, helped to write the charter of the UN and in 1948 and 1949 was the first president of the UN General Assembly, the body in which representatives of the member states meet.
- Australia has been involved in quite a few UN-led military actions.
- Some have been on a grand scale and subject to much debate in the community.
- The Korean War (1950–3) and the First Gulf War (1991), when Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein’s forces were ousted from neighbouring Kuwait, are examples of such conflicts.
- In more recent years, Australia has been involved in UN peacekeeping missions.
- This has included the overseeing of free elections in Cambodia (1993), getting food aid into war-torn Somalia (1994) and freeing the East Timorese people from Indonesian-backed militia gangs (1999).
Questions
1. Why was the UN established?
2. List two roles H.V. Evatt played in the UN after the war.
3. List two UN backed military expeditions in which Australia has been involved. Include the dates.
Australia’s Role in UNESCO
- Military campaigns have not been the UN’s only work.
- Eighty per cent of the work is devoted to economic and social development in developing nations.
- Here, too, Australia’s role has been significant.
- Australia has had UN posts in the UN Commission on Human Rights, the International Court of Justice and the UN Commission on the Status of Women.
- Australia has been elected several times to the executive board of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
- This last agency has been around as long as the UN itself.
- As well as providing educational facilities and technology to needy areas of the developing world, it has also endeavoured to preserve natural as well as cultural heritage sites around the world.
Question
What do the letters of UNESCO stand for? What is the aim of UNESCO?
Australia, Foreign Aid and the Colombo Plan
- One of the main features of Australia’s relations with nations in the Asia–Pacific region has been foreign aid.
- Our financial, technical, medical and educational assistance to needy countries has been through various agencies.
- The reasons for foreign aid are best summed up by the findings of one such review, in 1984: 1. Humanitarian assistance
- 2. Supporting Australia’s strategic interests
- 3. Promoting Australia’s commercial position overseas.
- In short, it has been in Australia’s long term interests for nations in the Asia–Pacific region to be politically stable and growing in prosperity.
- One of the most enduring of the foreign aid organisations to which Australia belongs is the Colombo Plan.
- This is an organisation that aims to improve the economic and social development of South-East Asian and Pacific nations.
- Set up in 1951, it was originally a group of seven Commonwealth nations and was chiefly concerned with emerging South Asian and South-East Asian Commonwealth states.
- It now has a far broader membership. Australia, New Zealand, Japan and the USA today provide most of the aid passing through the Colombo Plan.
- This includes education, health, food and training programs. Its headquarters are in Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Australia’s Role in APEC
- One of the more recent international organisations to which Australia belongs is APEC (Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation Group).
- Initiated largely by Australia, it was set up in 1989.
- Its main aim is to achieve free and open trade and investments among the countries sharing the Pacific region.
- This, it is hoped, will help reduce production costs and so create jobs and reduce the prices of goods and services among member states.
- In 1994, in Bogor, Indonesia, APEC leaders declared it their aim to have free and open trade and investment across the whole Asia–Pacific region by 2010.
Questions
1. What do the letters APEC stand for?
2. What is the aim of APEC?
Australia and UN Conventions
- The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights was a statement of rights.
- Over the next half century, the UN incorporated these rights into international law through a number of conventions and treaties by which signatories agree to uphold principles protecting people’s human rights.
- Australia has ratified (made law) the two most important of these:
- The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and
- International Convenant on Economic, Social and Cultural rights.
- Australia’s family law enshrines the UN declaration of the Rights of the Child.
- The Racial Discrimination Act (1975) also enshrines the international convention on the Elimination of all forms of Racial Discrimination.
Question
How has Australia made incorporated UN Conventions into its policies and law
Sunday, August 9, 2009
The changing patterns of Migration - 10/8/09 - Mrs. Trumm
The Changing Patterns of Migration
Assimilation
To be assimilated means to be absorbed into the dominant group of a society. The minority group is expected to assume the characteristics of the larger group. As part of Australia’s Assimilation Policy migrants were expected to speak English and no longer use their native language and to give up their culture and religion.
At first only those migrants who would fit into Australian society or looked like other Australians were welcomed. Later on the government allowed further migrants to come from eastern and southern Europe. This was due to a lack of interest from English speaking people.
Whilst the government largely ignored the problems faced by many migrants, church and neighbourhood groups did attempt to make assimilation easier.
The Failure of the Assimilation Policy
In spite of the Assimilation Policy, large numbers of migrants lived in communities with other members of their culture. Ethnic communities developed in places such as Leichhardt in Sydney. These communities retained most features of their culture and in some cases Australians began to absorb features of the minority group.
Policy of Integration
The Australian government was forced to review its policy of assimilation, as many migrants were not becoming the stereotypical Aussies that were envisaged. A policy of integration was introduced. Integration means that migrants were no longer discouraged from maintaining their cultural identity. Cultural differences were becoming accepted in Australia and many Australians enjoyed elements of a variety of cultures.
Case Study – Italian Migrants
Initially Australia was hesitant to accept southern Europeans from seeking citizenship. However, when immigration from the British Isles slowed, the government was forced to look further abroad for new citizens. Italians were expected to assimilate into the wider community.
Large numbers of Italians migrated to Australia. After leaving the migrant camps they usually chose to live in the vicinity of other Italians. Often they formed community groups and adhered to their traditions.
Many people are unaware of the fact that Italians account for the highest percentage of migrants since WWII. They have established large communities in Sydney, Melbourne and Newcastle. Italian immigrants have added to the Australian culture to the point where we now accept Italian culture as our own. Source analysis – Identify the differences that are apparent between the two cultures.
Case Study – Refugees /Boat People
The international definition of a refugee is someone who has a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, political opinion or membership of a particular social group. To be a refugee that person must have fled their own country and be unable or unwilling to return. Australia’s first refugees were the Vietnamese boat people, who first arrived in 1977. They arrived on dilapidated boats and were often sick from exposure, disease or malnutrition. They were fleeing Vietnam after the collapse of the South Vietnamese government. Many had supported the war effort, of which Australia was an ally, and feared that they would be executed by the new communist government.
Many boats sunk, killing all on board (estimates are in the thousands). They had risked their lives to escape Vietnam and there was no doubt about their refugee status.
Multiculturalism
In the late 1970s, Australia had a flexible and compassionate immigration policy. Australians had begun to celebrate migrant culture including food, music, fashions, arts and entertainment. Multiculturalism gave all Australians the opportunity to maintain their identity whilst remaining a valuable part of the nation’s future prosperity.
Assimilation
To be assimilated means to be absorbed into the dominant group of a society. The minority group is expected to assume the characteristics of the larger group. As part of Australia’s Assimilation Policy migrants were expected to speak English and no longer use their native language and to give up their culture and religion.
At first only those migrants who would fit into Australian society or looked like other Australians were welcomed. Later on the government allowed further migrants to come from eastern and southern Europe. This was due to a lack of interest from English speaking people.
Whilst the government largely ignored the problems faced by many migrants, church and neighbourhood groups did attempt to make assimilation easier.
The Failure of the Assimilation Policy
In spite of the Assimilation Policy, large numbers of migrants lived in communities with other members of their culture. Ethnic communities developed in places such as Leichhardt in Sydney. These communities retained most features of their culture and in some cases Australians began to absorb features of the minority group.
Policy of Integration
The Australian government was forced to review its policy of assimilation, as many migrants were not becoming the stereotypical Aussies that were envisaged. A policy of integration was introduced. Integration means that migrants were no longer discouraged from maintaining their cultural identity. Cultural differences were becoming accepted in Australia and many Australians enjoyed elements of a variety of cultures.
Case Study – Italian Migrants
Initially Australia was hesitant to accept southern Europeans from seeking citizenship. However, when immigration from the British Isles slowed, the government was forced to look further abroad for new citizens. Italians were expected to assimilate into the wider community.
Large numbers of Italians migrated to Australia. After leaving the migrant camps they usually chose to live in the vicinity of other Italians. Often they formed community groups and adhered to their traditions.
Many people are unaware of the fact that Italians account for the highest percentage of migrants since WWII. They have established large communities in Sydney, Melbourne and Newcastle. Italian immigrants have added to the Australian culture to the point where we now accept Italian culture as our own. Source analysis – Identify the differences that are apparent between the two cultures.
Case Study – Refugees /Boat People
The international definition of a refugee is someone who has a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, political opinion or membership of a particular social group. To be a refugee that person must have fled their own country and be unable or unwilling to return. Australia’s first refugees were the Vietnamese boat people, who first arrived in 1977. They arrived on dilapidated boats and were often sick from exposure, disease or malnutrition. They were fleeing Vietnam after the collapse of the South Vietnamese government. Many had supported the war effort, of which Australia was an ally, and feared that they would be executed by the new communist government.
Many boats sunk, killing all on board (estimates are in the thousands). They had risked their lives to escape Vietnam and there was no doubt about their refugee status.
Multiculturalism
In the late 1970s, Australia had a flexible and compassionate immigration policy. Australians had begun to celebrate migrant culture including food, music, fashions, arts and entertainment. Multiculturalism gave all Australians the opportunity to maintain their identity whilst remaining a valuable part of the nation’s future prosperity.
Task 2 - feedback - 10/8/09 - Mrs Trumm
Year 10 – Task 2 Feed Back on the Changing Rights and Freedoms of Aboriginal People
· One the whole most students attempted to include information on each of the four policies affecting Aboriginal rights and freedoms which were; protection, assimilation, integration and self determination.
· The better responses had a clear structure which included an introduction that made reference to the question. Such as ‘The changing rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people changed dramatically between the years 1945 and 2000.’ Each consecutive paragraph then discussed the four policies and provided relevant examples. Some students included whole paragraphs on the Stolen Generations and the Freedom Rides. Lastly, the best responses had a conclusion which briefly summed up what had been discussed in the essay.
· The better responses also had a clear structure, although very few if any responses used the TXXXC writing model throughout the essay.
· The responses that used clear, short and to the point sentences were easier to read.
· Some responses also referred to the question after discussing each policy by confirming that the rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people had changed due to the affects of the policy. This is always a good rule to follow as it shows the reader that you have only included information that answers the question.
· Many of the responses consisted of long-winded paragraphs that often repeated themselves.
· The following is a list of things to be careful of when writing your essays:
- Do not say the word “I” or “I believe”.
- Do not offer your own opinion.
- Do not say you “I am going to write about…….
- Do not use subheadings in your essay. It is not a report.
- If you are unsure of a date, it is best not to put anything. You can, however, keep it general by saying in the late 1950s or early 1960s for example.
- Keep your information in a History essay in chronological order.
- Try to keep your speech in a History essay formal. For example do not say the word “stuff” or “things”.
- In your conclusion do not add any new information, for example some students wrote about Prime Minister Kevin Rudd’s apology to the Aboriginal People in 2008. This information falls outside the years in question. Although I do realise that the policy of protection came before 1945.
· One the whole most students attempted to include information on each of the four policies affecting Aboriginal rights and freedoms which were; protection, assimilation, integration and self determination.
· The better responses had a clear structure which included an introduction that made reference to the question. Such as ‘The changing rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people changed dramatically between the years 1945 and 2000.’ Each consecutive paragraph then discussed the four policies and provided relevant examples. Some students included whole paragraphs on the Stolen Generations and the Freedom Rides. Lastly, the best responses had a conclusion which briefly summed up what had been discussed in the essay.
· The better responses also had a clear structure, although very few if any responses used the TXXXC writing model throughout the essay.
· The responses that used clear, short and to the point sentences were easier to read.
· Some responses also referred to the question after discussing each policy by confirming that the rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people had changed due to the affects of the policy. This is always a good rule to follow as it shows the reader that you have only included information that answers the question.
· Many of the responses consisted of long-winded paragraphs that often repeated themselves.
· The following is a list of things to be careful of when writing your essays:
- Do not say the word “I” or “I believe”.
- Do not offer your own opinion.
- Do not say you “I am going to write about…….
- Do not use subheadings in your essay. It is not a report.
- If you are unsure of a date, it is best not to put anything. You can, however, keep it general by saying in the late 1950s or early 1960s for example.
- Keep your information in a History essay in chronological order.
- Try to keep your speech in a History essay formal. For example do not say the word “stuff” or “things”.
- In your conclusion do not add any new information, for example some students wrote about Prime Minister Kevin Rudd’s apology to the Aboriginal People in 2008. This information falls outside the years in question. Although I do realise that the policy of protection came before 1945.
Example Changing rights and freedoms essay 10/8/09 - Mrs Trumm
Explain how the rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people have changed between 1945 and 2000.
The rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people changed significantly between the years 1945 and 2000. The Australian government put in place polices of protection, assimilation, integration and self determination which disempowered Aboriginal people and severely affected their rights and freedoms.
The Policy of Protection greatly affected the rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people. The policy of protection was based on ‘paternalism’ with two main aims which were to protect Aboriginal people and to educate and teach them ‘white ways’. Instead of ‘protecting’ Aboriginal people the policy brought about racism, discrimination and loss of Aboriginal culture. For example under the policy you could be moved onto a mission or reserve at any time, you needed permission from the government to marry a white person, you could not vote, traditional dancing and ceremonies were often forbidden and you could be separated from family members. Therefore, the Policy of Protection had a negative effect on the rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people.
The policy of assimilation also changed the rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people. The policy of assimilation meant that Aboriginal people were encouraged to give up their traditional lifestyle and to absorb the culture of white people. The Stolen Generations were a feature of the assimilation policy which saw thousands of children forcibly removed from their homes. Most of the children were placed in institutions and some were adopted into white people’s homes. As a consequence, the policy of assimilation continued to change the rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people.
The rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people continued to change as Assimilation was replaced by the policy of Integration in 1965. Integration meant that for the first time Aboriginal people were able to keep their customs and to have a say in how their lives were run. During this time there was also a greater drive to change the inequalities being experienced by Aboriginal people. The Aboriginal right to vote in Federal elections in 1962, the Freedom Rides of 1965 and the 1967 Referendum are examples of gains made by Aboriginal people during this time. As a result, the policy of integration meant that Aboriginal people were slowly making some gains towards their rights and freedoms.
In 1972, the government introduced the policy of self-determination. It was a policy aimed at having Aboriginal communities taking part in decisions that affected their lives. During this time Aboriginal people also continued to fight for lost rights and freedoms. On Australia Day in 1972, a group of activists erected a tent on the lawn of the Old Parliament House with the aim of raising public awareness of Aboriginal rights to land which was to become known as the Aboriginal tent embassy. Therefore, Aboriginal people were increasingly taking control of fighting for their rights and freedoms.
In conclusion it can be seen that the Australian government practiced policies which controlled and restricted the rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people. From the beginning of the 1900s the government implemented polices of protection and assimilation which resulted in the loss of Aboriginal kinship and culture. On the other hand, from the 1960s policies of integration and self-determination saw Aboriginal people fighting for and gaining some of their lost rights and freedoms.
The rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people changed significantly between the years 1945 and 2000. The Australian government put in place polices of protection, assimilation, integration and self determination which disempowered Aboriginal people and severely affected their rights and freedoms.
The Policy of Protection greatly affected the rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people. The policy of protection was based on ‘paternalism’ with two main aims which were to protect Aboriginal people and to educate and teach them ‘white ways’. Instead of ‘protecting’ Aboriginal people the policy brought about racism, discrimination and loss of Aboriginal culture. For example under the policy you could be moved onto a mission or reserve at any time, you needed permission from the government to marry a white person, you could not vote, traditional dancing and ceremonies were often forbidden and you could be separated from family members. Therefore, the Policy of Protection had a negative effect on the rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people.
The policy of assimilation also changed the rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people. The policy of assimilation meant that Aboriginal people were encouraged to give up their traditional lifestyle and to absorb the culture of white people. The Stolen Generations were a feature of the assimilation policy which saw thousands of children forcibly removed from their homes. Most of the children were placed in institutions and some were adopted into white people’s homes. As a consequence, the policy of assimilation continued to change the rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people.
The rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people continued to change as Assimilation was replaced by the policy of Integration in 1965. Integration meant that for the first time Aboriginal people were able to keep their customs and to have a say in how their lives were run. During this time there was also a greater drive to change the inequalities being experienced by Aboriginal people. The Aboriginal right to vote in Federal elections in 1962, the Freedom Rides of 1965 and the 1967 Referendum are examples of gains made by Aboriginal people during this time. As a result, the policy of integration meant that Aboriginal people were slowly making some gains towards their rights and freedoms.
In 1972, the government introduced the policy of self-determination. It was a policy aimed at having Aboriginal communities taking part in decisions that affected their lives. During this time Aboriginal people also continued to fight for lost rights and freedoms. On Australia Day in 1972, a group of activists erected a tent on the lawn of the Old Parliament House with the aim of raising public awareness of Aboriginal rights to land which was to become known as the Aboriginal tent embassy. Therefore, Aboriginal people were increasingly taking control of fighting for their rights and freedoms.
In conclusion it can be seen that the Australian government practiced policies which controlled and restricted the rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people. From the beginning of the 1900s the government implemented polices of protection and assimilation which resulted in the loss of Aboriginal kinship and culture. On the other hand, from the 1960s policies of integration and self-determination saw Aboriginal people fighting for and gaining some of their lost rights and freedoms.
Changing Rights and Freedoms: Aboriginal People – Review Sheet
Government Polices of Segregation and Protection
From the middle of the nineteenth century until 1910, laws were passed to separate Aboriginal people
from white Australians, and Aboriginal people from each other. By the 1920s, disease, despair and
dispossession had led to a rapid decline in the size of the Aboriginal population, causing many in the
white community to believe that the Aboriginal race was ‘dying out’. As a consequence, many
Aboriginal people were sent to live on reserves, missions or stations. The Christian missions provided
some protection for Aboriginal people but they also attacked Aboriginal cultural and spiritual beliefs
in their aim to ‘civilise’ and spread Christianity. It was only in the most remote areas of Australia
that Aboriginal people remained on their traditional land, living independent lives.
Government regulations and legislation controlled the daily life of Aboriginal people in the 1930s.
Permission was required when marrying, obtaining work or moving on or off a reserve. Control
of the most basic responsibilities, such as money and personal property, was denied.
Assimilation
In 1937, state governments followed policies of Assimilation. The aim was assimilate Aboriginal
people into white society. This meant that they were encouraged to abandon Aboriginal cultures
and meant that they were live like non-Aborigines. In 1951, Paul Hasluck, the newly appointed
Minister for Territories in the Menzies federal Government, stated that ‘…in the course of time, it
is expected that all persons of Aboriginal blood or mixed blood in Australia will live like white
Australians do’. Under the policy large numbers of Aboriginal children were taken away from
their parents and fostered or adopted by white families. These children are now called the
‘Stolen Generations”, continuing in some places until the 1970s. In New South Wales alone more
than 10,000 children were taken.
Integration
In 1965 the federal government replaced the Assimilation policy with a new policy: Integration.
For the first time a government policy recognised the right of Aboriginal people to run their
own affairs, keep their customs and be equal to other Australians. The government also finally
recognised that sections of the Australian Constitution discriminated against Aboriginal people
and that a referendum was needed to change those sections.
Self Determination
The election of the Whitlam Labor Government in 1972 was a turning point in Aboriginal rights.
Spending on Aboriginal programs was greatly increased and Aboriginal legal and medical services
were founded. The National Aboriginal Consultative Committee (NACC) was established as the
first nationwide body to represent Aborigines and steps were taken to recruit indigenous people to
decision making levels in the Commonwealth Public Service. In 1972 the government introduced
the Aboriginal policy of Self determination. The policy recognised the rights of Aboriginal people
to live traditional lifestyles if they wished to do so and aimed to help Aboriginal communities to
determine their own future. The Whitlam Government also made secondary education grants
available for all Aboriginal students and established an inquiry under Justice A.E. Woodward to
report on how Aboriginal people in the Northern Territory should be given land rights.
1965 Freedom Rides
Inspired by the freedom rides in the USA, the Student Action for Aborigines (SFA), a group of
students at the University of Sydney, decided to organise a similar protest. Early in 1965 the
group set out in a bus for northern New South Wales. Among its leaders was Charles Perkins,
who was the first Aboriginal Australian to graduate from a university and one of two Aboriginal
students on the bus. The protestors wanted everyone to know that Aboriginal people from reserves
and on the fringes of country towns were not allowed in many clubs, hotels and swimming pools and
had to sit in the front stalls at pictures theatres. They aimed to confront discrimination in towns
such as Moree and Walgett. They held protest demonstrations in front of RSL clubs and
swimming pools that restricted the entry of Aboriginal people. The freedom riders had the
sympathy of many country people but they also encountered violence. The important result
was that the protest succeeded in making many people in the cities aware of the existence of
discrimination in rural areas. Such increased awareness led to growing public support for
measures to abolish all forms of discrimination against Aboriginal Australians.
1967 Referendum
Although Aboriginal people were able to vote in federal elections after 1962, they still were not
counted in the census of the Australian population. Only state governments could make laws
affecting Aboriginal people living in that state. This meant that the rights granted to an
Aboriginal person in NSW might be lost as soon as that person moved to another state with
different laws. In October, 1966, Australia signed the International Convention on the Elimation
of All Forms of Racial Discrimination and, as a result, Aboriginal people renewed their efforts
to be counted as Australians in the census. The only way to achieve this was to alter Australia’s
Constitution. Section 127 of the Constitution stated that Aborigines were not to be counted in
the census. Aboriginal people also wanted the Commonwealth Government to be able to make
laws that would apply no matter where they lived in Australia but paragraph xxvi, section 51
of the Constitution prevented this. The only way to change Australia’s Constitution is to hold a
referendum in which citizens vote ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to a question. On the 27 May 1967, the Holt
Liberal government held a referendum to ask the Australian people if they would say ‘yes’ to
the above changes. When the final vote was counted about 90 percent votes were ‘yes’ which
allowed the Constitution to be changed.
As a result of the successful ‘yes’ vote there was an expectation that Aboriginal people would
get equal rights and opportunities. This did not happen. State governments were still able to make
their own laws affecting Aboriginal people and the Commonwealth’s new power to pass laws was
not used for nearly 10 years.
Land Rights
Definition – The continuing struggle of Indigenous Australians to regain possession of their lands.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Aboriginal rights campaigns became more militant. They also
gained wider support as many non-Aboriginal Australians became aware of the injustices suffered
by Aboriginal people since white settlement.
In 1963, Aboriginal people at Yirrkala in the Northern Territory sent a petition on bark to
the federal parliament, protesting about the intention of the giant company Nabalco to mine
bauxite for aluminium on Aboriginal sacred land.
Wave Hill protest – in 1966 Aboriginal stock workers went on strike on a NT cattle station
over a pay dispute and rights to land.
Aboriginal tent embassy – a group of tents was erected on the lawns outside Parliament
House in Canberra on Australia Day 1972. The tents were erected to embarrass the McMahon
Coalition Government which would not recognise land rights.
Native Title and the Mabo Decision
Definition of native title – legal recognition of the existence of indigenous people’s law and land
ownership before 1788.
In the late 1970s, the Queensland government began to deny some of the Meriam Islanders the use
of their lands. In 1982 a group of men led by Eddie Mabo challenged the government’s rights to do
this. They wanted legal recognition of their continued ownership rights over particular plots of
land on their island. On 3 June 1992, the High Court handed down its historic decision in favour
of Eddie Mabo and overturning the legal fiction that Australia had been terra nullius (land belonging
to no one) when the British took possession of it in 1788.
Government Polices of Segregation and Protection
From the middle of the nineteenth century until 1910, laws were passed to separate Aboriginal people
from white Australians, and Aboriginal people from each other. By the 1920s, disease, despair and
dispossession had led to a rapid decline in the size of the Aboriginal population, causing many in the
white community to believe that the Aboriginal race was ‘dying out’. As a consequence, many
Aboriginal people were sent to live on reserves, missions or stations. The Christian missions provided
some protection for Aboriginal people but they also attacked Aboriginal cultural and spiritual beliefs
in their aim to ‘civilise’ and spread Christianity. It was only in the most remote areas of Australia
that Aboriginal people remained on their traditional land, living independent lives.
Government regulations and legislation controlled the daily life of Aboriginal people in the 1930s.
Permission was required when marrying, obtaining work or moving on or off a reserve. Control
of the most basic responsibilities, such as money and personal property, was denied.
Assimilation
In 1937, state governments followed policies of Assimilation. The aim was assimilate Aboriginal
people into white society. This meant that they were encouraged to abandon Aboriginal cultures
and meant that they were live like non-Aborigines. In 1951, Paul Hasluck, the newly appointed
Minister for Territories in the Menzies federal Government, stated that ‘…in the course of time, it
is expected that all persons of Aboriginal blood or mixed blood in Australia will live like white
Australians do’. Under the policy large numbers of Aboriginal children were taken away from
their parents and fostered or adopted by white families. These children are now called the
‘Stolen Generations”, continuing in some places until the 1970s. In New South Wales alone more
than 10,000 children were taken.
Integration
In 1965 the federal government replaced the Assimilation policy with a new policy: Integration.
For the first time a government policy recognised the right of Aboriginal people to run their
own affairs, keep their customs and be equal to other Australians. The government also finally
recognised that sections of the Australian Constitution discriminated against Aboriginal people
and that a referendum was needed to change those sections.
Self Determination
The election of the Whitlam Labor Government in 1972 was a turning point in Aboriginal rights.
Spending on Aboriginal programs was greatly increased and Aboriginal legal and medical services
were founded. The National Aboriginal Consultative Committee (NACC) was established as the
first nationwide body to represent Aborigines and steps were taken to recruit indigenous people to
decision making levels in the Commonwealth Public Service. In 1972 the government introduced
the Aboriginal policy of Self determination. The policy recognised the rights of Aboriginal people
to live traditional lifestyles if they wished to do so and aimed to help Aboriginal communities to
determine their own future. The Whitlam Government also made secondary education grants
available for all Aboriginal students and established an inquiry under Justice A.E. Woodward to
report on how Aboriginal people in the Northern Territory should be given land rights.
1965 Freedom Rides
Inspired by the freedom rides in the USA, the Student Action for Aborigines (SFA), a group of
students at the University of Sydney, decided to organise a similar protest. Early in 1965 the
group set out in a bus for northern New South Wales. Among its leaders was Charles Perkins,
who was the first Aboriginal Australian to graduate from a university and one of two Aboriginal
students on the bus. The protestors wanted everyone to know that Aboriginal people from reserves
and on the fringes of country towns were not allowed in many clubs, hotels and swimming pools and
had to sit in the front stalls at pictures theatres. They aimed to confront discrimination in towns
such as Moree and Walgett. They held protest demonstrations in front of RSL clubs and
swimming pools that restricted the entry of Aboriginal people. The freedom riders had the
sympathy of many country people but they also encountered violence. The important result
was that the protest succeeded in making many people in the cities aware of the existence of
discrimination in rural areas. Such increased awareness led to growing public support for
measures to abolish all forms of discrimination against Aboriginal Australians.
1967 Referendum
Although Aboriginal people were able to vote in federal elections after 1962, they still were not
counted in the census of the Australian population. Only state governments could make laws
affecting Aboriginal people living in that state. This meant that the rights granted to an
Aboriginal person in NSW might be lost as soon as that person moved to another state with
different laws. In October, 1966, Australia signed the International Convention on the Elimation
of All Forms of Racial Discrimination and, as a result, Aboriginal people renewed their efforts
to be counted as Australians in the census. The only way to achieve this was to alter Australia’s
Constitution. Section 127 of the Constitution stated that Aborigines were not to be counted in
the census. Aboriginal people also wanted the Commonwealth Government to be able to make
laws that would apply no matter where they lived in Australia but paragraph xxvi, section 51
of the Constitution prevented this. The only way to change Australia’s Constitution is to hold a
referendum in which citizens vote ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to a question. On the 27 May 1967, the Holt
Liberal government held a referendum to ask the Australian people if they would say ‘yes’ to
the above changes. When the final vote was counted about 90 percent votes were ‘yes’ which
allowed the Constitution to be changed.
As a result of the successful ‘yes’ vote there was an expectation that Aboriginal people would
get equal rights and opportunities. This did not happen. State governments were still able to make
their own laws affecting Aboriginal people and the Commonwealth’s new power to pass laws was
not used for nearly 10 years.
Land Rights
Definition – The continuing struggle of Indigenous Australians to regain possession of their lands.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Aboriginal rights campaigns became more militant. They also
gained wider support as many non-Aboriginal Australians became aware of the injustices suffered
by Aboriginal people since white settlement.
In 1963, Aboriginal people at Yirrkala in the Northern Territory sent a petition on bark to
the federal parliament, protesting about the intention of the giant company Nabalco to mine
bauxite for aluminium on Aboriginal sacred land.
Wave Hill protest – in 1966 Aboriginal stock workers went on strike on a NT cattle station
over a pay dispute and rights to land.
Aboriginal tent embassy – a group of tents was erected on the lawns outside Parliament
House in Canberra on Australia Day 1972. The tents were erected to embarrass the McMahon
Coalition Government which would not recognise land rights.
Native Title and the Mabo Decision
Definition of native title – legal recognition of the existence of indigenous people’s law and land
ownership before 1788.
In the late 1970s, the Queensland government began to deny some of the Meriam Islanders the use
of their lands. In 1982 a group of men led by Eddie Mabo challenged the government’s rights to do
this. They wanted legal recognition of their continued ownership rights over particular plots of
land on their island. On 3 June 1992, the High Court handed down its historic decision in favour
of Eddie Mabo and overturning the legal fiction that Australia had been terra nullius (land belonging
to no one) when the British took possession of it in 1788.
Changing Rights and Freedoms of Aboriginal People - 10/8/09 - Mrs. Trumm
Changing Rights and Freedoms – Aboriginal People
Time line of Government Policies/Events
1930s
During the 1930s the plight of Aboriginal Australians became worse.
During the Depression many lost their family endowment payments, unemployed were refused access to relief work.
Aboriginal Protection Board forced them back onto reserves, which became overcrowded.
1937 – First conference of Commonwealth and state bodies concerned with Aboriginal matters is held in Canberra.
Policy of removing children from their families to aid assimilation gained momentum. This issue later became known as the "stolen generations’. Many of these children suffered abuse in their foster homes or in the institutions that they were placed.
Assimilation was government policy – this meant that Aboriginal people were forced to give up their culture and traditions and adopt mainstream Australians values and culture.
1938 – Aboriginal Day of Mourning held on the 150th anniversary of the arrival of European settlement.
1950s
1951 - Paul Hasluck – Federal Minister for Territories promoted the policy of assimilation for all Aboriginal people at a Native Welfare Conference.
1960s
1962 - Aboriginal Australians were given the right to vote in Commonwealth elections and finally in Queensland and Western Australia.
1965 - The Federal Government replaced the Assimilation policy with a new policy of Integration. This policy recognised the rights of Aboriginal people to run their own affairs, keep their customs and be equal to other Australians.
1970s
1972 - The Whitlam government (Labor Pty) worked to improve indigenous relations and introduced the policy of Self Determination.
Self determination is the right of a group to choose and control its own destiny and development.
1990s
Native Title and Reconciliation have been among the most important issues since the 1990s in Australia for non-Aboriginal and Aboriginal people.
The Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation Act was passed by federal parliament in 1991.
They developed a vision statement that helped define reconciliation.
The council said that three facts must be recognised:
Firstly, indigenous people were the original inhabitants of this land.
Secondly; they had become disadvantaged because they were dispossessed of that land, separated from families and denied the benefits of the nation’s social and economic development.
Thirdly; all Australian should live in harmony.
Use the above information to construct your own timeline of government policies and events affecting Aboriginal people.
1965 – Freedom Rides
Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal activists set out across northern NSW.
They were inspired by Freedom Rides in America.
The activists were known as Student Action for Aborigines (SFA).
They were from Sydney university.
Charles Perkins was one of their leaders.
He was the first Aboriginal to graduate for uni.
They wanted to spread the knowledge that Aboriginal Australians on reserves and living on the fringe of country towns were not allowed in many clubs, hotels and swimming pools.
They travelled to towns in rural NSW such as Moree and Walgett where they held protests.
They encountered violence and sympathy.
They aimed to stop this discrimination.
They succeeded in making many Australians aware of the discrimination.
The Stolen Generations
· Throughout early and mid twentieth century large numbers of Aboriginal children were taken from families.
· They were forced to abandoned their culture, language and way of life.
· It was part of the assimilation policy.
· These children were known as the Stolen Generations.
· The practice continued in some places until the 1970s.
· The children were placed in missions often run by churches where girls were trained in domestic service and given a basic education.
· Boys were trained in stock work.
· The children were sent out into the community when they reached the age of 14.
· When paid they received low wages if any.
· 1995 Prime Minister, Paul Keating (Labor Pty) established an inquiry into the stolen generations
· The inquiry found white Australians thought they were doing the right thing.
· Some Aboriginal children were mistreated but some did have positive experiences.
· They inquiry found that human and legal rights were breached as the children were forcibly removed.
· In NSW more than 10,000 children were removed and lost links with their families.
· Calls were made for an apology to the Stolen Generations – This apology was not given until 2008 by Prime Minister Kevin Rudd.
Use the above information to make your mind map.
The 1967 Referendum
1958 FCAATSI (The Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders) formed. They played a significant role in bringing about the referendum.
Before 1967 – Aboriginal laws made by individual states.
Many overseas countries were critical of the treatment towards Aboriginal people.
Aboriginal people wanted to be counted in the Census.
And they wanted the Commonwealth government to be able to make laws for all Aboriginal Australians.
They needed to change the constitution to be able to do this.
Section 127 stated that Aboriginal people could be counted in the Census
Section 51 stated that the Commonwealth government could not make decisions for the Aboriginal people.
Referendum – citizens vote ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to a question.
On the 27th May 1967 the Holt Government (Liberal Pty) held a referendum.
90% of final votes counted said ‘yes’ – lowest votes come from country towns.
Commonwealth powers to pass laws for Aboriginal people did not come about for another 10 years.
The Commonwealth did although provide more money for housing and health.
Changes to the constitution were supported by all political parties.
Use the above information to answer the following short response question.
Why was the 1967 referendum held?
Time line of Government Policies/Events
1930s
During the 1930s the plight of Aboriginal Australians became worse.
During the Depression many lost their family endowment payments, unemployed were refused access to relief work.
Aboriginal Protection Board forced them back onto reserves, which became overcrowded.
1937 – First conference of Commonwealth and state bodies concerned with Aboriginal matters is held in Canberra.
Policy of removing children from their families to aid assimilation gained momentum. This issue later became known as the "stolen generations’. Many of these children suffered abuse in their foster homes or in the institutions that they were placed.
Assimilation was government policy – this meant that Aboriginal people were forced to give up their culture and traditions and adopt mainstream Australians values and culture.
1938 – Aboriginal Day of Mourning held on the 150th anniversary of the arrival of European settlement.
1950s
1951 - Paul Hasluck – Federal Minister for Territories promoted the policy of assimilation for all Aboriginal people at a Native Welfare Conference.
1960s
1962 - Aboriginal Australians were given the right to vote in Commonwealth elections and finally in Queensland and Western Australia.
1965 - The Federal Government replaced the Assimilation policy with a new policy of Integration. This policy recognised the rights of Aboriginal people to run their own affairs, keep their customs and be equal to other Australians.
1970s
1972 - The Whitlam government (Labor Pty) worked to improve indigenous relations and introduced the policy of Self Determination.
Self determination is the right of a group to choose and control its own destiny and development.
1990s
Native Title and Reconciliation have been among the most important issues since the 1990s in Australia for non-Aboriginal and Aboriginal people.
The Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation Act was passed by federal parliament in 1991.
They developed a vision statement that helped define reconciliation.
The council said that three facts must be recognised:
Firstly, indigenous people were the original inhabitants of this land.
Secondly; they had become disadvantaged because they were dispossessed of that land, separated from families and denied the benefits of the nation’s social and economic development.
Thirdly; all Australian should live in harmony.
Use the above information to construct your own timeline of government policies and events affecting Aboriginal people.
1965 – Freedom Rides
Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal activists set out across northern NSW.
They were inspired by Freedom Rides in America.
The activists were known as Student Action for Aborigines (SFA).
They were from Sydney university.
Charles Perkins was one of their leaders.
He was the first Aboriginal to graduate for uni.
They wanted to spread the knowledge that Aboriginal Australians on reserves and living on the fringe of country towns were not allowed in many clubs, hotels and swimming pools.
They travelled to towns in rural NSW such as Moree and Walgett where they held protests.
They encountered violence and sympathy.
They aimed to stop this discrimination.
They succeeded in making many Australians aware of the discrimination.
The Stolen Generations
· Throughout early and mid twentieth century large numbers of Aboriginal children were taken from families.
· They were forced to abandoned their culture, language and way of life.
· It was part of the assimilation policy.
· These children were known as the Stolen Generations.
· The practice continued in some places until the 1970s.
· The children were placed in missions often run by churches where girls were trained in domestic service and given a basic education.
· Boys were trained in stock work.
· The children were sent out into the community when they reached the age of 14.
· When paid they received low wages if any.
· 1995 Prime Minister, Paul Keating (Labor Pty) established an inquiry into the stolen generations
· The inquiry found white Australians thought they were doing the right thing.
· Some Aboriginal children were mistreated but some did have positive experiences.
· They inquiry found that human and legal rights were breached as the children were forcibly removed.
· In NSW more than 10,000 children were removed and lost links with their families.
· Calls were made for an apology to the Stolen Generations – This apology was not given until 2008 by Prime Minister Kevin Rudd.
Use the above information to make your mind map.
The 1967 Referendum
1958 FCAATSI (The Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders) formed. They played a significant role in bringing about the referendum.
Before 1967 – Aboriginal laws made by individual states.
Many overseas countries were critical of the treatment towards Aboriginal people.
Aboriginal people wanted to be counted in the Census.
And they wanted the Commonwealth government to be able to make laws for all Aboriginal Australians.
They needed to change the constitution to be able to do this.
Section 127 stated that Aboriginal people could be counted in the Census
Section 51 stated that the Commonwealth government could not make decisions for the Aboriginal people.
Referendum – citizens vote ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to a question.
On the 27th May 1967 the Holt Government (Liberal Pty) held a referendum.
90% of final votes counted said ‘yes’ – lowest votes come from country towns.
Commonwealth powers to pass laws for Aboriginal people did not come about for another 10 years.
The Commonwealth did although provide more money for housing and health.
Changes to the constitution were supported by all political parties.
Use the above information to answer the following short response question.
Why was the 1967 referendum held?
Vietnam Veterans - 10/8/09 - Mrs. Trumm
Vietnam Veterans
- Due to the war being unpopular the Vietnam Veterans did not receive the welcoming home give to other soldiers.
- Some felt the Australia people blamed them.
- Many experienced difficulties settling back into civilian life.
- By the end of 20th century almost as many soldiers who were killed during the war committed suicide.
- Many vets were left untreated for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
- Vets had to fight for compensation due to the affects of Agent Orange.
- Agent Orange was linked with three health problems – cancer, birth abnormalities and toxic brain dysfunction.
- Drugs were widely available in Vietnam, many came home with drug problems.
- The veterans were left with severe psychological problems.
- 1980 Vietnam Veterans of Australia was established to lobby government for financial assistance.
- At last, in 1987 ‘welcome home’ parades were held in Sydney.
- Due to the war being unpopular the Vietnam Veterans did not receive the welcoming home give to other soldiers.
- Some felt the Australia people blamed them.
- Many experienced difficulties settling back into civilian life.
- By the end of 20th century almost as many soldiers who were killed during the war committed suicide.
- Many vets were left untreated for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
- Vets had to fight for compensation due to the affects of Agent Orange.
- Agent Orange was linked with three health problems – cancer, birth abnormalities and toxic brain dysfunction.
- Drugs were widely available in Vietnam, many came home with drug problems.
- The veterans were left with severe psychological problems.
- 1980 Vietnam Veterans of Australia was established to lobby government for financial assistance.
- At last, in 1987 ‘welcome home’ parades were held in Sydney.
Background to the Vietnam War - 10/8/09 - Mrs Trumm
Background to the Vietnam War
The Vietnam War was a war of national liberation against a colonial ruler. It was also a civil war, between the ideas of capitalism and communism. It was a war that involved great powers such as the United States and the USSR and their allies.
In the past, Vietnam has been subjected to foreign rule by China and more recently by Japan and France. During French rule of Vietnam they put a stop to nationalist movements that tried to gain independence. They used the countries resources and exploited the people.
In 1930 Ho Chi Minh founded the Indochinese Communist Party and in 1941 he formed the Vietminh League. He wanted independence and socialism for Vietnam. The Vietminh fought the French for control of their land for nine years and finally defeated the French at Dien Bien Phu in 1954.
The Vietminh had control of the north but in the south the French set up a rival government that was also supported by the United States. Fearing the spread of communism, the US had provided the French with financial support and war materials and military advisors.
In the South, Vietnamese people unhappy with the French and US backed rule formed an organization known as the Vietcong. The Vietcong began to wage guerilla warfare against the South Vietnamese rule from the early 1960s.
The civil war to which the USA and its allies, which included Australia, were involved was not simply a war between North and South. It was a war where most of the fighting against the South Vietnamese government was done by the Vietcong rather than the North Vietnamese soldiers.
The war was different from previous wars. The Americans and their allies soon found that their enemy was often hard to recognize. The Vietcong were experts at guerrilla warfare. They lived among the villagers and had their support in most areas. There was no front line, and no clear distinction between Vietcong fighters and civilians.
The USA and its allies had an enormous superiority in firepower, military technology, however, the Vietcong knew the countryside and were tough fighters. They also gained supporters as US troops destroyed peasant villagers and killed civilians in search and destroy missions and bombing raids.
The Domino Theory
US military involvement increased from 300 military advisors in 1965 to 100,000 troops in 1965. By 1968 this had grown to 500,000. To justify this intervention the US supported the domino Theory that if one of the countries of South-East Asia fell to communism this would lead to the fall of another and so on.
The Vietnam War was a war of national liberation against a colonial ruler. It was also a civil war, between the ideas of capitalism and communism. It was a war that involved great powers such as the United States and the USSR and their allies.
In the past, Vietnam has been subjected to foreign rule by China and more recently by Japan and France. During French rule of Vietnam they put a stop to nationalist movements that tried to gain independence. They used the countries resources and exploited the people.
In 1930 Ho Chi Minh founded the Indochinese Communist Party and in 1941 he formed the Vietminh League. He wanted independence and socialism for Vietnam. The Vietminh fought the French for control of their land for nine years and finally defeated the French at Dien Bien Phu in 1954.
The Vietminh had control of the north but in the south the French set up a rival government that was also supported by the United States. Fearing the spread of communism, the US had provided the French with financial support and war materials and military advisors.
In the South, Vietnamese people unhappy with the French and US backed rule formed an organization known as the Vietcong. The Vietcong began to wage guerilla warfare against the South Vietnamese rule from the early 1960s.
The civil war to which the USA and its allies, which included Australia, were involved was not simply a war between North and South. It was a war where most of the fighting against the South Vietnamese government was done by the Vietcong rather than the North Vietnamese soldiers.
The war was different from previous wars. The Americans and their allies soon found that their enemy was often hard to recognize. The Vietcong were experts at guerrilla warfare. They lived among the villagers and had their support in most areas. There was no front line, and no clear distinction between Vietcong fighters and civilians.
The USA and its allies had an enormous superiority in firepower, military technology, however, the Vietcong knew the countryside and were tough fighters. They also gained supporters as US troops destroyed peasant villagers and killed civilians in search and destroy missions and bombing raids.
The Domino Theory
US military involvement increased from 300 military advisors in 1965 to 100,000 troops in 1965. By 1968 this had grown to 500,000. To justify this intervention the US supported the domino Theory that if one of the countries of South-East Asia fell to communism this would lead to the fall of another and so on.
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